Irish Equality Acts 1998-2011

Critically evaluate the effectiveness of the relevant provisions of the Employment Equality Acts 1998-2011 (and their predecessors) in eliminating pay discrimination on the ground of gender within the workplace and thus reducing the gender pay gap. The European Union is founded upon core values including respect for human dignity, freedom and equality between men and women. This equality extends to the workplace where both men and women are entitled to equal conditions of employment and pay.Articles 20 and 23 of the charter of fundamental rights similarly states that all persons are equal before the law and that equality between men and women must be ensured in all areas â€Å"including employment, work and pay. † Despite this the average hourly gender pay gap within the European Union stands at 17. 1% but varies from 6%- 34% depending on the member state[1]. In an attempt to close the gender pay gap in the European Union, various legislation has been drafted and implemented o ver the previous forty years.The right to equal pay is set out in Article 157TFEU(formerly Art 141,Art 119) which expressed that â€Å"each member state shall ensure that the principle of equal pay for male and female workers for equal work or work of equal value shall be applied†. The subsequent legislation for preventing discrimination in the workplace was incorporated into Irish law by means of the Anti-Discrimination (pay) act 1974 and the Employment Equality act 1977.The jurisprudence for the right to equal pay is the landmark case of Defrenne v Sabena[2] which saw the European court of justice establish that the right to equal pay was legally binding in agreeing that the complainant’s right to equal pay derived directly from Article 119(now Art 157TFEU). The law in Ireland is now governed exclusively by the Employment Equality acts 1998-2004 which replaced the acts of 1974 and 1977.Article 8 of the Treaty on the functioning of the European Union states that in al l its activities the Union â€Å"shall aim to combat discrimination based on sex, racial or ethnic origins, religious belief, disability, age or sexual orientation. † The issue of discrimination in relation to equal pay can arise both directly and indirectly as has been seen in the case law and legislation surrounding this area. The case of Gillespie v Health and Social Services Board[3] efined discrimination as â€Å"the application of different rules to comparable situations or the application of the same rule to different situations†. Article 2(1) of the Recast equal treatment directive has defined direct discrimination as occurring in a situation where â€Å"one person is treated less favourably on the grounds of sex than another is, has been or would be in a comparable situation†. A necessary requirement of the test for direct discrimination is a suitable comparator that the complainant can compare themselves to in order to establish discrimination has occu rred.It is then the duty of the tribunal to consider the reasons for selecting that comparator and whether they are suitable as a relevant comparator in the given situation. Section 6(1) (a) of the Employment equality acts allows a person to select a hypothetical comparator as the scope extends to situations where a complainant â€Å"would be† treated less favourably, but this is not the case when concerning issues relating to pay[4]. It is important to note that there are exemptions to the prohibition on discrimination.Under section 25 of the Employment equality acts an employer may be permitted to treat employees differently based on gender. This is only non-discriminatory where the objective is legitimate and proportionate. The Employment equality acts also provide for the employer to promote equal opportunities for both male and female employees. This may come in the form of vocational training or improving working conditions which help create a higher skilled workforce a nd help to address imbalances evident in the workforce by the gender pay gap.Section 24 of the Employment Equality Acts allows an employer to implement measures which initially make it easier for an under-represented sex to pursue a vocational activity but also to prevent or compensate for disadvantages in professional careers. Promotion or the advancement of one’s career will be dependent on whether that employee is best suited to the position based on their skills and experience and this has been echoed by the European court of justice.Section 24 should be viewed with the understanding that female employees are not automatically entitled to a promotion and thus a higher rate of pay, but that any measures introduced by the employer are to ensure that equal opportunities are available to both sexes. Section 19(4) of the Employment Equality Acts prohibit indirect discrimination on gender grounds in relation to pay where it states â€Å"indirect discrimination occurs where an apparently neutral provision puts persons of a particular gender at a particular disadvantage in respect of remuneration compared with other employees of their employer†.It’s clear from this that indirect discrimination concerns a provision which appears to affect all employees in a firm but really favours or disfavours a category of employees. In Nathan v Bailey Gibson[5] indirect discrimination on the grounds of gender was evident where the complainant had been employed as an assistant to a machine operator and subsequently applied for his job after he retired. The employer had a â€Å"closed shop† agreement in place with the trade union and hired an unemployed male member of the union after the vacancy became available.The union itself was made up predominantly of male members. The Supreme Court held this amounted to indirect discrimination. Indirect discrimination allows for an employer to defend the imposition of an indirectly discriminatory provision as bei ng objectively justifiable. This is enshrined in section 19(4) which states that indirect discrimination on the grounds of gender will not occur where the act or clause is â€Å"objectively justified by a legitimate aim and the means of achieving that aim are appropriate and necessary†.The landmark case of Bilka-Kaufhaus GmbH v Karin Weber von Hartz[6] where differential treatment of part time and full time staff relating to pension rights was occurring and the employer attempted to justify the refusal to pay pensions to part time workers on the basis that it was necessary to discourage staff from working part time for economic reasons. The complainant argued that this breached Article 157TFEU in relation to equal treatment relating to pay.The European court of Justice rejected the argument of the employer but did state that an indirectly discriminatory measure may be justifiable if it is necessary to meet a real need on the part of the employer. The court went on to say that this would occur only if it is appropriate with a view to achieving the objective pursued. In order to understand how the legislation implemented has aided the elimination of pay discrimination, it is first necessary to understand the meaning of pay and ultimately what constitutes pay.Article 157TFEU provides that both male and female workers are entitled to receive equal pay for equal work, or work which has an equal value and the right of community members to equal pay is provided for in the Employment Equality Acts. This provision has both vertical and horizontal effect owing to the decision in Defrenne v Sabena, which allows employees to take actions before their national court.The Employment Equality Acts provide a clear and concise explanation of the right to equal pay in section 19(1) where it states that â€Å"It shall be a term of the contract under which A is employed that, subject to the act, A shall at any time be entitled to the same rate of remuneration for the work which A is employed to do as B who, at that or any other relevant time, is employed to do like work by the same or an associated employer†. However, both the European Court of Justice and the national courts have held there to be a broad scope as to what constitutes pay.These courts have held that sick pay, travel concessions, grading systems, inconvenient hours supplement, redundancy pay, bonus pay and share allocations all fall within the scope of pay[7]. The European court of Justice defined pay in the case of Arberterwohlfahrt der Stadt Berlin v Botel[8] where it was said to be â€Å"all consideration, cash or in kind, whether immediate or future, provided that the worker receives it, albeit indirectly, in respect of his employment from his employer, whether under a contract of employment, by virtue of legislation or on voluntary basis†.The European Court of Justice has also considered the less favourable treatment of part time workers which it considers to be indir ect discrimination on the gender ground. The case of Bilka-Kaufhaus features again here as the ECJ held that where a part time employee earns less pay for doing an equal amount of work as an employee working full time then this may constitute indirect discrimination on gender grounds as a vast majority of part time employees are female which is certainly in line with the legislation under section 19(1) of the Employment Equality Acts.Pay in relation to pregnancy and maternity leave has resulted in the European Court of Justice determining that any allowances paid will not constitute pay. Gillespie and ors. V Northern Health and Services board saw complainants fail in bringing a claim arguing that their employer was in breach of Article 141(now Article 157TFEU) by paying them less than their full salary during maternity leave. It was also the case in North Western Health board v McKenna[9] that the ECJ decided a female employee absent from work due a pregnancy related illness is not entitled to maintenance of full pay.This is the case currently but it should be noted that an amendment to Directive 92/85 has been proposed and if passed, would allow for a female employee to obtain her entire salary while on maternity leave subject to a Member state possibly placing a maximum level at the level of national sick pay[10]. This has not yet come into force due to opposition from various member states primarily on the ground of cost but also â€Å"limiting parental rights to mothers rather than to fathers and creating obstacles to the recruitment of women in the workforce†.It has been necessary for the ECJ and national courts to determine whether the complainant is doing equal or â€Å"like work† to their chosen comparator. Fortunately, the legislation clarifies the meaning of â€Å"like work† in section 7(1) of the Employment Equality Acts as being: 1. The same work undertaken by another person under the same or similar conditions 2. Where the wor k is of a similar nature 3. The work is of equal value taking into consideration such matters as skill, physical or mental requirements, responsibility and working conditions.From this it is clear that in order for the complainant to establish they are partaking in â€Å"like work† they must show that they are interchangeable with the comparator at any given moment and without any notice. In the case of Department of posts and telegraphs v Kennefick[11], a complaint was made by a female post and telegraph clerk that she was being paid less than her comparator who was doing like work. The employer argued that the male telegraph clerk’s job description included additional duties which he was seldom asked to perform. The Labour Court in this case refused to be guided y job description and ordered that the female employee was entitled to equal pay. However, it has been held that higher qualifications will justify a party receiving a higher salary. This was evident in the à ¢â‚¬Å"Austrian psychotherapists’ case†[12] where a group made up primarily of female psychotherapists who had psychology degrees sought equal pay with medical doctors who were employed as psychotherapists. The ECJ agreed that both parties undertook â€Å"seemingly identical activities† but found that the medical doctors were also qualified to undertake additional activities due to their qualifications.Therefore, the ECJ held that the difference in training and qualifications meant that the two parties were not in a comparable situation. The courts have also been faced with determining situations where the work is similar in nature or equal in value. For example, the case of Dowdall O’Mahony v 9 female employees[13] saw equal pay awarded as the court held that the differences in the positions were found to be of little importance in the context of the work as a whole.When dealing with issues where the work is deemed to be of equal value, it is the function of the court to look at the skill, physical effort and responsibility required to perform the work. In 24 women v Spring Grove Services[14] the female employees were employed in the finishing area of the linen maintenance section. They sought to compare themselves with a group of male employees who were employed to work in the wash house.The court subsequently compared the work undertaken by one male employee and one female employee and concluded that the male used more physical effort and skill than the female employee in the course of her work and therefore they were not doing equal work. Section 19(1) of the acts provides that the claimant and the comparator must be employed to do equal or like work by the same or associated employer at that or any other relevant time which under section 19(2 b) is defined as any time during the three years preceding or following the time at which the action is taken.Despite the benefits of the legislative provisions provided in the Employment Eq uality Acts, there are numerous problems with their effectiveness and enforcement. Despite the legislation there is a scarcity of discrimination cases relating to pay being taken to national court level and there are a variety of reasons for this. In some situations it is difficult to ascertain the scope of comparison for the wording of certain provisions in the legislation as it is not defined in statutory law, such as the meaning of work of â€Å"equal value†.Another issue is that the concept of the â€Å"hypothetical comparator† is not allowed in most countries and it’s also the case that the comparator must be employed by the same employer. The problem with this is that locating a real comparator can be difficult in segregated professions where comparators of the opposite sex are rare. In various European states it is the case that the citizens have no faith or trust in the judiciary to appropriately or effectively deal with a case of sex discrimination.Havi ng explored in detail where the relevant provisions of the Employment Equality Acts have been applied to eliminate pay discrimination on gender grounds, it is important to note that the employer is entitled to show that the difference of treatment in relation to pay is not indirectly discriminatory but valid on some other ground. This â€Å"defence† is provided in section 19(5) of the Employment Equality Acts. Under this section employers may pay different rates of remuneration to both men and women but it must be justifiable on grounds other than gender.The test for this stems from the BIlka Kaufhaus[15] case where the employer is required to show how and why the decision to discriminate was made at that point and it was subsequently decided that retrospective justification was unacceptable. The qualifications of the employee, worker flexibility and length of service may be objective grounds if they can be attributed to the needs of the employer. The case of NUI Cork v Ahern [16] concerned a pay differential between male security guards and female phone operators’.This was deemed to be justifiable as the female operators were paid more for doing less work. This was not due to gender as they had originally been doing an increased amount of work but due to family issues was now doing less. This thinking was continued in the case of Dept of Justice, Equality and law reform v CPSU[17] where the court held that the department had grounds other than gender for the payment of a higher rate to Gardai members performing clerical work compared with civilian clerical workers.Certain posts within An Garda Siochana are reserved for Gardai. Here, the majority of the 761 clerical posts in An Garda Siochana were female. This was deemed to be justifiable for â€Å"genuine operational reasons† and to ensure the continuity of services at all times. Employers may also be able to rely on a defence of market forces where they establish that the payment of a low er wage for some employees is part of the business strategy on economic grounds which can be objectively justified.This was developed in Enderly v Frenchay Health Authority[18] where a comparison was made between speech therapists who were predominantly women and pharmacists who were predominantly men being paid at a higher rate. The employer’s argument was that differential pay was due to a shortage of pharmacist candidates and not due to sex discrimination found favour with the court. Despite the legislation, the European gender pay gap still stands at 17. 1%, but there are a variety of innovative ways to help close the gender pay gap[19].The Finnish government has coined the concept of an equality pot, which is a sum of money set aside for municipal governments to fund pay rises in low paid, highly educated female sectors as low wages are traditionally paid to female workers in highly feminised branches of the public sector[20]. This would help to reduce the pay gap and pu t in place a greater level of equality relating to pay between the two genders. Another method of closing the pay gap is to support the continuity of female employment as they often interrupt their employment in order to manage both their family and professional life.This could be done by the reconciliation of both and could be achieved through the provision of child care facilities in the workplace ensuring female employees were able to bring their children to work[21]. It should also be noted that imposing an obligation on male workers to be involved in child rearing would allow for the continuation of women in employment and would help to close the gender pay gap. References †¢ European Gender Equality Law Review-No. 1/2011 †¢ Principles of Irish Employment Law: Brenda Daly, Michael Doherty 2010,Page 111. †¢ Employment Law in Ireland: Maeve Regan, page 459 published May 2009 †¢ European Gender Equality Law Review No 1/2011, â€Å"Equality Pay for Men and Wome n in Europe Anno 2011 The Gender Pay gap on the retreat? † Petra Foubert †¢ http://epp. eurostat. ec. europa. eu/portal/page/portal/eurostat/home/ ———————– [1] European Gender Equality Law Review-No. 1/2011 [2] Defrenne v Sabena (1976) ECR 455(C-43/75) [3] Gillespie v Health and Social Services Board (1996) ECR 475 4] Principles of Irish Employment Law: Brenda Daly, Michael Doherty 2010, Page 111. [5] Nathan Bailey v Gibson (1998) 2 IR 162 [6] (1986) ECR 1607 [7] Employment Law in Ireland: Maeve Regan, page 459 published May 2009 [8] (1992) IRLR 423 [9] North Western Health board v McKenna(Case C-191/03) [10] Principles of Irish Employment Law: Brenda Daly, Michael Doherty, 2010, p160 [11] Department of Posts and Telegraphs v Kennefick EP 9/1979 [12] Case C-309/97 (1999) ECR 2865 [13] Dowdall O’Mahony v female employees EP2/1987 [14] (1996) ELR 147 15] (1986) C-170/84 [16] (2005) SC IE 40 [17] (2008) ELR 140 [ 18] (1993) ELR 1-5535 [19] European Gender Equality Law Review No 1/2011, â€Å"Equality Pay for Men and Women in Europe Anno 2011 The Gender Pay gap on the retreat? † Petra Foubert [20] European Gender Equality Law Review No 1/2011, â€Å"Equality Pay for Men and Women in Europe Anno 2011 The Gender Pay gap on the retreat? † Petra Foubert [21] European Gender Equality Law Review No 1/2011, â€Å"Equality Pay for Men and Women in Europe Anno 2011 The Gender Pay gap on the retreat? † Petra Foubert

Marketing plan in mortgage services

Owning a home is an American dream that mortgage services is positioned to a lucrative business investment.   However, there are several factors that influence market decisions where market research can be useful.   One important area is researching about the historical and forecasted changes in market value.   When values are expected to rise, the firm has greater potential to be successful in its expansion plan.   People are motivated to mortgage home purchase when there is a likely price gain.Similarly valuable is to determine other economic indicators such as trends of wage rate, income taxes and also mortgage rate, down payment and monthly payment limits.   In expanding to four other states, there may be local policies and regulations that can modify economic characteristics from Idaho which could trigger different marketing strategies.   For example, declining salaries in one state can reduce ability of the market to pay monthly installments.There are also other alt ernatives to purchasing a primary or secondary home that minimizes the market for mortgage services.   In effect, the advantages and disadvantages of decision substitutes should be compared to home mortgage.   Factors to consider are the costs and tax benefit of home improvements, profitability of real estate investment trust (REIT) and buying-versus-renting performance.   There might be a need for the firm to search for other lenders that can offer more attractive provisions to outweigh the benefits of decisions substitutes.For example, longer mortgage period may be necessary to bring down monthly installments and be competitive to comparative monthly rental fees.   It is also helpful to gather information on population mobility (i.e. tendency to transfer to other states or countries) or the visitor performance on the four states.   When they are people have high mobility or the state does not receive substantial visits, the location is less attractive for homeowners whic h can suggest new strategies to the firm.Marketing MediumIn its expansion, the company is required to inform the market of its existence including its market position and branding.   Inability to establish good faith credentials to the market can lead to business failure.   It can tap useful business partners.   Local authorities and agencies that administer the Federal Housing Administration (FHA) and Veterans Administration (VA) loans are the primary channels of the firm since it offer services for FHA and VA loans.The firm can be also referred by home sellers to their clients which can lead to a win-win situation for all parties.   The company and home sellers can develop their market while clients are provided with value-added services with the opportunity to get financial support.   REIT and landlords can also supply the needed campaign because they too necessitate home appraisal for investment decisions.   Although they are not included in the customer list of the company, citing the firm as cost efficient provider of mortgage services is a mechanism in better servicing the interest of their investors/ occupants.Publicity can also provide the necessary marketing medium.   It can advertise the company on a wider scale without the communication to several parties rather than single marketing agency.   As an alternative, the company can develop its own publicity by designing an advertising or promotional campaign.   Local newspapers can highlight the services offered, target market, average mortgage rate and service fee that are offered by the firm.This can create initial perception about its positioning (e.g. low-cost service provider).   Feedback is important in any campaign to determine if the market has gained perception similar to what the company intends to be.   In this view, it is important to include in the newspaper ad contact details such as telephone number, website and address.   Getting the feedback is important since b eing a low-cost service provider can create impression that the service is inferior to others offering higher prices.Target MarketsBeing a low-cost service provider, the firm is expected to attract the low-income segment and parts of middle-income segment.   This is concretized by the fact that the firm is offering a start-to-finish approach where clients can have full services from loan application, home appraisal and contract delivery.   The work-oriented lifestyle of these segments can receive significant benefits of this approach since they can save time, money and simplify issues associated with home purchases/ loan.Primary and secondary homeowners are also target market.   The former are inexperienced and the consultancy services can serve as guide in decision-making.   In the contrary, the latter are experienced but are in need of refinancing services as they find a more attractive loan contract from different lender or have changed their mind regarding their initial home purchase.   Acquirer of leisure properties are also target market because the company has a portfolio of different lenders who can meet the requirements of such loan.As FHA loans will likely consist of low- and middle-income segment, VA loans bring forth a new segment.   This includes retirees and at least fifty year old people or their widows who intend to marry again.   The service that can be offered to them is advisory particularly on issues such as enjoying â€Å"double† exemption for capital-gain tax in case of selling a home which subsequently mean getting the exemption first before remarrying.   Further, older people have less time to manage their properties particularly researching, monitoring and evaluation of economic trends.As a result, most of their decisions are based on experience and judgment.   The company can intervene in this case in offering valuable services to contribute the missing link of older people’s considerations.   Lastly, the company can attract potential market that places their investments in stocks, bonds and mutual funds.   With lowest fees and integrated service, real estate investment has relatively lower transaction costs than other investment choices.4Ps and SIVA on Marketing PlanThe market research provides information that will shape the products of the company as they require adjustment based on state-specific factors.   It also contributes on pricing the service as low-price services may not appeal to the local market making the current position less effective.   Therefore, necessary promotions that can add value to the service can be initiated.   In using each marketing medium, the company can increase its presence and market penetration to each state.It can rationalize the need for publicity and additional expenses for advertising depending on the market behavior and strength of local housing authorities in influencing them.   For example, if housing is strictly regulated or supporting mechanisms are minimal, the company may likely opt to use the media in increasing awareness and demand.   By determining target markets, the scanning done in market research and identification of potential marketing medium will be evaluated based the characteristics of the market.   Target markets is the most crucial part of the marketing plan because it simplifies consideration of the factors in general environment and marketing medium to those that are only significant in influencing market behavior.Satisfaction of the market is addressed when the company offers products and services that are relevant to their current needs.   This includes augmenting loopholes of local housing authorities in providing related services and incentives.   Their interests are activated by actively establishing business partners through local housing authorities, home sellers, REIT and other parties related to housing sector.   Word-of-mouth marketing is acquired.   The value fo r money regarding the services of the company is aligned to the income situation of its target market which assures an effective strategy.   On the other hand, well-off segment would see the low-price service as opportunity to get a second opinion and increase lender alternative.   Finally, convenience in accessing the firm’s services is supported also by various marketing medium.ReferencesGeller, L. (2002) Response: The Complete Guide to Profitable Direct Marketing. New York: Oxford University Press.Hitt, M., Hoskisson, R. & Ireland, R. (2003) Strategic Management: Competitiveness and Globalization. 5th Ed. South Western: Thomson Learning.Kotler, P. (2003) Marketing Management.11th Ed, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Africa’s growing concern Essay

Whoever ignites the flames of hate has succeeded considerably. Hatred has become a way of life for many people around the world. People envy other people and create hatred to those of better lives. But no human being is prepared for what the African continent actually reveals. The persecution of unwanted individuals is prevalent in this part of the earth. Poverty hounds Africa no end. The life there is very hard and disturbing. The place is filled with chaos and turmoil. No stability is in sight. The entire world is currently alarmed over the high incidence of death within its population. Countries over the years have pledged support to the stagnant economy of the African nation. All means of contribution have been given to the poor continent. But in spite of the continued aid, there seems to be no hope of rising within the nation. Africa has shoved itself into a hole so deep that the possibility of becoming buried is never a remote idea in the future. Men, women and children agonize over their situations. Food and resources are hard to come by. Thousands die of starvation annually. But more than that, countless people become victims of unnecessary violence. World leaders and governments around the globe have, time and again, met and discuss the events in Africa numerous times. Like a disease, the social demise of its population has been a primary concern for many nationalities worldwide. People are dying every minute. The media has played a vital role in revealing the abuses and brutalities of people. All eyes are focused on this place where individuals have disregarded the value of human life. The carnage continues, and will continue unless a swift and effective solution will be unveiled. There is a sense of urgency for the world’s leading governments to address the destruction of human dignity in Africa. However, in spite of the launching of countless humanitarian missions to solve the nation’s woes, death and suffering lingers on. Billions have been spent on relief operations but the social problem remains undefeated. The casualty toll piles up. The killing spree goes unsuppressed. And the rest of the world watches dumbfounded. It only shows that governments and its people are not doing enough to find answers to the African problem. Although food and the lack of basic needs is the primary concern among the African people, it is violence that must be silenced. Several decades of gun running and smuggling within the continent have only brought death to many citizens. As long as the armaments keep on coming, peace will remain to be an elusive and distant dream. The social instability in the African nation is about power. Individuals and their clans grapple for control. Gaining that momentum to hold every move in the tumultuous society means having the arms and weapons to subject everyone to their every word. The world is stretching its influence into every corner of the continent. But sadly, the troubled nation drives off the chance and rare opportunity to rebuild its communities. It is ironic that a very poor place can summon the strength to annihilate all intervening parties out of their motherland. Events are bleak. The panic button has been set. But with all the dangers and the deaths, Africans have little regard for the needs of their nation. Women and children go elsewhere to find peace. War escalates and the streets are stained with blood. If the world is keen on finding the answers to the growing social menace in Africa, analysts should dig deeper to gain a full and total understanding of the situation among its people. The United Nations must be aware to the motives and intentions of the African people. All along, the entire globe has only addressed the needs of the poor continent. The real reason for the chaos remains undetermined, and therefore, unsolved. Turmoil will continue to rob the African nation of its dream of peace and stability. With a disorganized crowd and a selfish government, senseless killings and looting will be around for a long time.

Choosing Construction Method (which one is most cost effective) Dissertation

Choosing Construction Method (which one is most cost effective) self-build - Dissertation Example Options are very important to consider in a self-build project because this will help the builder in choosing the best method for the project. 1. Steel frame This is advantageous because it gives strong energy efficiency and a good standard is achievable. This is usually use in buildings with big open-plan spaces. Considerations, wrapping the exterior part of the frame with firm insulation layer in preventing heat loss. The need of this is not usually recognize in some methods in construction. By comparing to the timber frame, expect 25% more with the cost in using the steel. 2. Brick and block construction This is one of the most common method that is use where in the bricks is attach to the inner skin of the blocks. This construction method is very quick considering the weight of the blocks and how easy it is to use. However, Considerations must be taken like aerated blocks are good insulators. 150 mm thick block compared to 100mm (normal) is suggested to use. Understanding in the different use of the blocks according to the location of the project is very important. In using this method it is also important to consider the weather because it could force the work to stop which in effect will increase the cost. 3. Pre-cast concrete panels It is a concrete panel made through a formwork mould and fabricated outside the site. Exceptionally, this method produces a very strong building. Usually used in basements and where water proofing is advised. This method is best recommended in building volume of houses building that involves a high level of repetition. It is not popular and suited to a one-off house and this method needs plenty of space to be able to put the panels in proper place. 4. Timber frame This method gives the idea that the timber studs and panels can be cover by any weatherproof material. Structural beams are also available in achieving a greater span. This method also suggests to a better flexibility for ground floor room layouts (Self Builder, 201 1). Vision As the methods to choose from have been presented above it is relevant to state the vision statement that would describe what is wanted in the future regarding the self project. In applying standardize engineered fabrication and assembly methods, new supplies and tools will help in a rapid low-cost construction in standardize, lightweight structure and in an efficient working time. There are a lot of advantages in using flexible and programmable new improved properties when it comes to strength, transportation and flexibility to form. This modern process is efficient in reducing labor and material cost. Current problems It is very important to be aware of the existing situation in identifying the current problems with regard of the self project. Many changes occur over the past few decades when it comes to dealing with materials and methods that is applied and used in a construction. Popularity about the use of concrete and steel in the industry are evident. Construction equipment advancement including the secondary system leads to surplus advantages like reducing the maintenance and improving the durability, energy efficiency and lower the environmental impact. Potentials benefits and Opportunities 1. Traditional way of construction is reduce to a fraction of the present trend. 2. Direct labor that is normally required is reduced in

Microeconomics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 4

Microeconomics - Essay Example The worst thing about monopoly is that the seller gets market command by which he may exploit the customers either by charging high rate or sacrificing product quality. Though, monopoly is not a good thing in the market, it cannot be avoided from the market. Suppose, when the seller has a monopoly over certain resources which are used for producing a particular item such as oil, minerals etc. Sometimes, when a seller is equipped with a unique skill, which others in the same industry lack. In certain occasions, monopoly is legally attained for the patent or copy right for a product/service. Government also allows certain organisation to have sole power over certain product/service by legislation. One such organisation is what this paper is going to discuss about. Indian Railway comes under the department of Indian Government, which came into being in1853. It is the world’s second largest rail network. All the rail operations are managed by the state-owned Indian Railways, which fall under the jurisdiction of Ministry of Railways. Rail transport is one of the common modes of the transport for large population of the country. Its network spreads across 28 states and 3 union territories with limited services to places like Nepal, Bangladesh and Pakistan. (Indian Railways, para. 4) It is the second largest commercial employer in the world and has more than 1.54 million employees and runs as many as 11,000 trains daily. (Official web site of Indian Railway). It has been assisting the growth of Indian economy directly and indirectly since its inception. During the many ups and downs of the country’s economy in the past, railway has been an integrating force to stabilize the economy and maintain economic growth of the country. Indian Railway is not a private corporate body. It operates under the Railway Department of Ministry of Railways of Government of India. But, in the recent times it is striving to attain the professionalism in

Managing business organisation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Managing business organisation - Essay Example In contrast to the classic way of treating the workforce as assets in order to gain revenue and transactions, he viewed them as individuals who need to be trained and aligned to the strategic direction of a business organization. With this commitment, he leads them recognizing their worth and importance to the company. He trains them with respect at the same time becoming a good example of what a professional chef and group member should be like. His leadership is built on mutual respect and a commitment to merge understanding with discipline. He tried to understand employees’ problems by being with them in all that they go through providing the proper guidance. He is consistent in his way of resolving conflicts and is always willing to praise and recognize employees’ improvements. The management structure in Fifteen is relatively flat with Jamie at the top and all employees treated as equals. As each trainee is given the same opportunities and limitations, they become more receptive of the idea of teamwork noting that each has a different contribution to the business organization. The flat structure enables the smooth and direct flow of information in each party. It should be noted that trainees can directly communicate with Oliver about the problems they are experiencing. The chef is also very open to the concern of the employees and takes time to listen to all their problems. This openness facilitates the resolution of conflicts relative fast and execution of plans more efficient. Ethics has been an important component in the day in and day out operations of the company. Noting that being courteous and respectful to both customers and colleagues are primary to the success of a restaurant, Oliver emphasizes these values even during the early stage of training. For a company which is operating in the current business arena, the issue of conducting business ethically is of utmost importance as customers are becoming more and more

Own potential as a 'Prospective Manager' Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Own potential as a 'Prospective Manager' - Essay Example A manager can carry out self-skills audit to identify, review and assess his / her own performance. A questionnaire may be helpful but is not a professional way to judge the skills. The right way would be to talk with other related people and managers and observe how do they achieve their objectives. However following questionnaire contains example of some questions: important role how does he / she handle the job. Management style in fact reflects the leadership of a manager and depends much upon the culture of the business and nature of the work and workforce. Following management theories of 20th century became obsolete now. Motivation – Hierarchy of Needs: A.H. Maslow (1950 to 1960): Used to motivate people for his / her competency and creativity competencies, through his / her dignity - respect, love - affection, tutoring from protection and hunger. As the name sounds a leader is a person who influences the others through his / her image and behavior which could be demonstrated by his / her intelligence, courage, skilful capabilities etc. A manager can develop and improve his / her leadership style through learning and practice. A manager can act as a leader adopting one or more following type of leadership styles: Vision of life would be similar to a magnet pulling the iron articles. A life without vision puts long term objectives into dilemma and short term objectives become work-oriented. Vision is a dream, purposeful and object of any person or organization. It keeps motivated and focused all the time. Your vision should be conceived for your happiness, inspiration, enjoy and what you wanted. You may write and draw a meaningful vision and start acting on it. Writing a mission statement is also a challenging job and requires brain exercise. Reflection of vision should fall in mission statement. Mission could be personal for life, organizational or departmental

What's a Gaffer Do Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

What's a Gaffer Do - Assignment Example Lighting, its effective designing and timely execution is crucial for the success of any shot, making the man responsible for the whole affair central to the art of filmmaking. According to Iggy, one of the leading gaffers in the filmmaking and who is also an avid blogger, the prerequisites for working as a gaffer is the acquisition of technical knowledge and a sound know-how of the equipment (Iggy, n.p.). For having an executive position, creativity and decision making skills are extremely crucial as well. Gaffer unions and guilds do exist; they offer internships as well as support for a gaffer while s/he is under employment. For example, the Motion Picture Studio Electrical Lighting Technicians Local 728 is one such organization listed on the IATSE website that works to support gaffers in the filmmaking industry (IATSE 728). An initiation fee is usually mandatory to gain membership in such unions. A gaffer’s importance to filmmaking cannot be emphasized enough since it is on e of the most pivotal roles in the entire process of cinematography. Effective management of the lighting on the set ensures a brilliant filming of a scene; hence, the correlation between a good gaffer and the success of the film is strong. Best Boy Electric is the assistant to the gaffer in the filmmaking industry.... To get started as a best boy, it is not necessary to have an academic degree since it is sound technical knowledge and effective organizational skills that determine a best boy’s success on the film set. As far as internships in the field are concerned, there are plenty of opportunities for a prospective best boy to learn the tricks of the trade, either under the mentorship of a professional gaffer or by enrolling in technical assistance programs offered. For instance, the Film New Orleans webpage offers a list of individuals who can assist upcoming technicians to train as best boys (Film New Orleans). The medium of filmmaking is extremely dependent upon the efforts of the best boy, especially in the productions phase, making the job central to the lights, camera and action. A Dolly grip is one of the posts that is related to the cinematographic field of filmmaking. Responsibilities of a dolly grip revolve around the technical supervision and operation of the camera dolly. A w ord known to filmmakers, the Media College defines a camera dolly as specialized equipment, a lot like a track, along which the camera moves (Camera Moves). The camera dolly not only allows the cameraman to take smooth shots but also facilitates the capturing of shots from multiple angles. Since a dolly grip is responsible for the operation of the camera dolly, the post is very closely related to that of a cameraman and thus falls under the camera department. In essence, it is a post linked with the production process of filmmaking. As is the case with most of the production department related posts, a dolly grip does not require prior academic achievements to be able to enter the field. Moreover, since the dolly grip is required to handle and

Discuss the Standard industrial classification Essay - 1

Discuss the Standard industrial classification - Essay Example The main purpose of the SIC codes is to represent each of the industries with the metrics that allows the agencies to conduct business analysis, regardless of the branches of the industry. In other words, the main purpose of the SIC code is to standardize the measures, analyze and share the data that enables the agencies to have understanding about the business. It assesses these agencies to conduct business analysis for the major businesses and industries. SIC codes have been assigned to the business and industries on the bases that they share common features, characteristics with respect to their products, services, production and system of business. The hierarchy of these codes varies with the top to down structure of the general characteristics of the business and industry that are than future down according to the specification of the business. For example: the first two digits of the code allow to detect the major industry sector that the business is operating, the third and fourth digit tells about the specification of the good, services and product line of the business. the SIC codes are used by the national census bureau of the country, labor statistic, internal revenues and social security administration that make use of these SIC codes to identify the type of industry that the business is operating in. These agencies make use of these codes for reporting for the academic and business sectors to analyze the progress and risks that the business may inherit. It is also used to analyze several business issues, relating to business processes, decisions, such as labor council, wages and prices. The social security administrat ion agency make use of the SIC codes to make use of the primary business activity on the employer ID. SIC codes are developed to identify the type of economic activity that the business is engaged in. it classifies the business with respect to their economic activities that have been used by the United Kingdom to develop

Components of Interpersonal Communication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Components of Interpersonal Communication - Essay Example Verbal skill is important for establishing relationship (Key, 1980). According to Key, in a hunting society relationship is based on one’s ability to hunt but in a technological society verbal skills replace hunting skills. This only implies that interpersonal communication has also evolved over time. It is clear that the environment and human experience change the course of interpersonal communication which is evident on how the verbal skill has become so important in establishing relationship in contemporary society. Message has to be spoken clearly in order to understand it. A preacher for instance has to read the passage in the Bible, but it is not enough. He has to elaborately discuss it in detail based on his meditation. It is the only way in which a certain passage from the Bible can be clearly understood by the people. Thus, a preacher is required to have excellent verbal skills in order to convey the message or information successfully. People are expecting something more from him and that is to be able to gain insights. One way a preacher can be able to address the spiritual needs of the people is through effective communication through excellent verbal skills as anointed by God. On the other hand it is not only enough to focus on verbal skills in order to effectively communicate, but there are also non verbal skills that need to be taken into account. The American culture for instance values handshake as important part of being polite and meaning business at some point. The Japanese culture places more emphasis on body bow as an act of politeness and loyalty. Body gestures therefore are integral parts of communication process because they convey specific meanings or symbols. There are different cultures around the world which means there are different non verbal communications that need to be clearly defined and they are categorized as technical,

Ocean of information Essay Example for Free

Ocean of information Essay Information seeking skills are needed whenever there is a search for new information. With the advent of the internet there is suddenly a lot of information available at the click of a mouse and yet, one needs to have some knowledge and skills to obtain the relevant information from the vast ocean of information on the internet. When it comes to searching on the internet, there are many search tools available: search engines, subject directories / virtual libraries, invisible (deep) web databases, Meta search engines, etc (Barker, 2007). Search engines such as Googleâ„ ¢, AlltheWeb, MSN, Teoma, AltaVista and Wisent provide specific information (Bazac, 2006). Metasearch engines such as ez2Find, Division, Info Grid, Info NetWare, boogie, etc can be used when searching for a unique search term, or in-depth information on a particular subject (Bazac, 2006). Web directories such as Googleâ„ ¢ Directory, Open Directory Project (ODP), Yahoo! Zeal, JoeAnt and Gimpsy provide general information on popular topics, and scholarly information is best got from virtual libraries such as Librarians Index to the Internet, INFOMINE, and Internet Public Library (Bazac, 2006). Real time information is best obtained through deep web which are specialized databases (MU, 2007). Examples of excellent invisible web databases are Profusion, Invisible-web. net, Complete Planet, Resource Discovery Network and direct search (Moore, 2007). Robert Muldrow Cooper Library, attached to the Clemson University, is known for its automated information retrieval system, the Clemson facilities (CU, 2007). Numerous periodical indexes are housed on-line and available for automated searching. The collections deal mainly with agriculture, natural and physical sciences, economics and technology. Many of the databases that include full text of many articles are available for access through the internet. There are many links to web indexes, search engines, and tips on searching and evaluating sources (CU, 2007). The essential steps in an internet-based search strategy are having a focus, identifying and understanding the key concepts of the topic, finding alternative terms for these concepts and identifying the place for searching and this includes synonyms, plural/singular forms, spelling variations, variations of root words and acronyms (MU, 2007). If the initial information is too little or too much, the search terms should be modified. A search may be broadened by any of the following steps: reducing the number of concepts, using an OR search, looking for alternative terms, using more general search terms, using subject headings as search terms or using alternate spellings. On the other hand, a search may be narrowed by using an AND or NOT search, looking for more specific alternative terms, using subject headings as search terms, or using more precise terms (MU, 2007). Journal websites that can provide full text articles for nursing students and professionals include NursingCenter, Medscape, Hardin MD and Online Journals (Research Medical Library). CINAHL sources provide links to websites of interest to various journals of interest to nursing and allied professions (CINAHL, 2007). CINAHL stands for Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature. Other important websites for nursing information include Medscape, Toxline and AIDSLINE, Journal of Nursing Management, NursingCenter, and The American Journal of Nursing (AJN). The AJN site allows one to find articles from more than 50 trusted nursing journals, including AJN and Nursing2007. Registration is free (AJN, 2007). Thus, the internet is a treasure trove of information for the searcher with the right set of searching skills. Bibliography: CINAHL (2007). http://www. cinahl. com/csources/csources. htm Barker, Joe (2007). Finding Information on the Internet: A Tutorial. http://www. lib. berkeley. edu/TeachingLib/Guides/Internet/FindInfo. html MU (Monash University) (2007). Library Online Tutorials. http://www.monash.edu/library

Unity 3D Essay Example for Free

Unity 3D Essay Based on our research Game development is the process of creating video games and games can be developed as an artistic outlet and to produce a lot of money. Game developer is software developer, business or an individual who is in charge in creating video games. There are many types of video games examples areRPG, Actiongames, Adventure games, Strategy games, Vehicle Simulation games, Puzzle games, Sports games and many more. On this part the researchers discussed the data gathered in some related games in the World Wide Web or internet and study it to serve as reference to the project. Unity 3D as a Game development tool Firstly we could see in this article is all about Unity 3D and initially Unity is an integrated development tool used for creating interactive 3D software, like 3D games and simulations games. Based on our research Unity3D is a superior 3D engine and the environment of Unity 3D is very simple to understand and easy to use for a beginner. Unity should interest anyone who wants create 3D games and game applications in cell phone, desktop and many more. Unity’s iterative light map baking gives you complete control of your light mapping workflow. The integrated light mapping tool, Beast, perfectly bakes lights into textures for amazing performance. You can opt to spend time baking only the parts of the scene you are actively working on. Unity facilitates the smooth deployment of your single-player games online, with options such as adding high scores, chat, and real-time interaction and Unity also makes the complexities of real-time networking easy to negotiate. Turning a single-player game into a networked multiplayer game requires few changes to your existing code, and you never have to worry about networking technicalities like NAT punch through Unity also helps you quickly bring your scene to life with automatic navigation mesh. A navigation mesh is a summary of data structure used in artificial intelligence applications to aid agent in path-finding through large spaces. Lastly Unity also provides powerful tools for resonant scenes. Like In-game audio is powered by FMOD, one of the worlds most widely used libraries and toolkits for the creation and playback of interactive audio. In Scripting with Unity it brings you fast iteration and execution and the  strength and flexibility of a world-leading programming environment. Scripting is uncluttered, straightforward and incredibly fast. In Unity, you write simple behavior scripts in JavaScript, C# or Boo. All three languages are easy to use and run the three programs is an open source so it means you can download it just for free. Unity 3D also offers a free unlimited trail version of the software, but also sells Unity Pro, a more feature-rich professional version. In addition they offer developers a source code license if they encounter limitations in the Unity Pro development environment, allowing programmers to extend the capabilities of Unity. Techniques in 3D Modeling In this article it will discuss what 3D modeling is all about and we could see in this article the different techniques in modeling. Firstly the Primitive modeling is a very basic modeling technique and hence has several draw backs too. The software tool like 3D Max, Maya andmany more.Provides a set of 3D primitives like spheres, boxes, triangles etc. The artist alters these shapes to suit his/her character modeling needs, using lattices, deformers and many more.Primitive modeling technique is more suitable for building objects like houses, furniture etc rather than, for live organic modeling. Next is the â€Å"NURBS† or Non Uniform Rational B-spline. If we see this modeling technique from an outer view, all we see is a set of simple curves that we call NURBS. How the 3D tool implemented it we don’t need to care much these curves are very flexible and have control points on them which we can use to change its shape. The NURBS modeling has its advantages and disadvantages. It is an easy to model approach, since the NURBS curves are easy to manipulate. But this modeling technique has limited extensibility. Suppose you want to add an extra limb to your alien creature after the modeling is complete, it will become extremely difficult, if you choose NURBS modeling. Finally the surface modeling, this is the widely adopted modeling technique used primarily for organic modeling. In this modeling technique, the 3D artist creates a spline cage profile for the 3D character. The splines intersect between each other, creating a completely closed profile of the character, unlike the NURBS technique. This method has the advantage that it can be extended to adapt to varied requirements, during any stage of the modeling process. This offers a lot of flexibility  to the artist. This technique is used widely in 3D animation software’s. Autodesk 3Ds Max 3Ds max is one of the most powerful and popular desktop 3D graphics programs available today the program is used for a wide variety of commercial and artistic applications, including architecture , computer games, film production, forensic, medical and scientific visualization, virtual reality, web design and even fine art. In auto desk 3Ds Max where you can create alien planets, towering ruins, heroes, villains and create your own paradise. By harnessing your imagination to 3Danimation, you can make animals prowl and mountain as people run through quivering jungles. But before you start creating chaos and quest you need to learn the basics about 3ds max if you have mastered the skill in how to navigate viewports, control the display, create and select objects, and transform your creations. Then you will learn how to model objects in greater details. Example of Car Racing PC game: Dirt 3 Based on our research Dirt 3 is a rally Car racing video game and the third in the Dirt series of the Colin McRae Rally series, developed and published by Code masters. However, the Colin McRae tag has been completely removed from this iteration (having previously been removed from only American versions of previous games in the series). The game was released in Europe and North America on 24 May 2011, and two days later in Australia for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360. The Japanese version of Dirt 3 was released on 25 August 2011. F1 Online: One example of a Car racing PC game in Unity is the F1 Online it is the Game that uses an innovative control method that allows anyone with a mouse to take part in exhilarating races with up to 24 players on stunning circuits from around the world. Test your racing prowess over a selection of 19 officially licensed circuits and 18 custom-built circuits spanning 6 continents. Discover the perfect racing line, master corner braking and learn to deploy DRS and KERS at the right moment to drive your team to victory. The more successful you are on the track, the more rewards you will earn. http://www.naturalmotiongames.com/games/csrracing/ http://unity3d.com/gallery/made-with-unity/game-list http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_modeling http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-3d-modeling.htm

PERSPECTIVES ON THE EMPLOYMENT RELATIONSHIP AND CONFLICT

PERSPECTIVES ON THE EMPLOYMENT RELATIONSHIP AND CONFLICT Introduction Today industries have undergone a great change in terms of the kind of personnel they deploy as they look for maximization of their production and profits. There is keen selection of means of production especially specialized labor and therefore this means that todays employer is much more focused on what he needs in the process of production (Fredman Gillian 1989, p.48). There are increased agreements and dispute procedures which used to be forced on the unions by employer association some time ago, but the bargaining ability and freedom has called for diversification of employers functions and restructuring of the pay agreements (Bach Sisson 2000). Management of the businesses has also changed with regard to todays need and is being performed by board of governors (Guest 1991, p.153). There are two aspects of employer relationship namely; market relations and managerial relations. A market relation refers to terms and conditions on which labor is hired and is economic in character. Managerial relations refer to deployment of labor force by the management and how this deployment is to be done. Before trade unions, individual worker could chose to work or go elsewhere if he or she is not satisfied with employers terms of work. And because an individual worker was weaker than the employer, there came a regulated work market with trade unions where employees are allowed to collude with fellow workers for a collective bargaining. The primary justification of trade union is that it protects the worker in the economic aspect of his employment (Gintis 1987, p.68). In job regulations, employers and employees adopt an agreement contract. These contracts have rules over a wide variety of work places. They contain an individual interest which necessarily ignores the economic reality behind the bargain because the parties are simply not equal (Wedderburn 1986, p.8). This one sided interest of contract of employment is the bone of contention in the workplace relationship. The contract requires the employer to pay wages, provide work, exercise care and cooperate while employees are expected to obey reasonable order, exercise reasonable care and competence, maintain fidelity, honesty, protect confidential information, be accountable and not to sabotage employers business among other provisions. These provisions are just mere protection on managerial rights. However, the actual cooperation of legal rights in work places depends on the power, knowledge and organization of the parties as well as on the statute book (Edwards 1987, p.15). The agreement of work must take into consideration that what is offered by the worker to the employer is the capacity to work, which only the capitalists make maximum use of, but the output benefits only the capitalists (Braveman 1998, p.37). This paper seeks to examine the three perspectives that have been a wide reference regarding industrial relations, their take on how these conflicts may arise and how they are solved under each system. In the discussion we will also seek to see how managers under these perspectives seek to gain control for effective management. The perspectives There are three perspectives on the employment relationship that can contribute in analyzing the nature of conflict in work place: Unitarism, Pluralism and Marxism. Most writers and theorists have written on these schools of thought and have used them from different perspective to analyze social issues. Here they will be used to test their take on the nature of conflict in the workplace and the way managers or human resource managers seek control and effective guidance in exercising their vested authority. Unitarism This is the system whereby a focus is placed upon one source of authority without negotiation. It assumes a kind of partnership teamwork in its operationalization. In a unitary system, members are expected to strive as a unit and pursue a common goal and every unit component does its part to the best of its ability (Fox 1966, p.2). Members are expected to exhibit discipline, royalty and effective communication because the organized body is supposed to be an integrated and harmonious whole. Following the centralized leadership members accept their place and function and this means antagonist groups and rivalry in leadership are not accommodated. Unitarism holds the idea that conflict in the work place should be a two way because the Leaders, who expect loyalty and respect from members, must first exhibit and demonstrate the same to individual members. According to Fox (1966, p.3), the success and impetus of the team inheres from personal relationship and just like a football team there is no divided spirit especially with management authority. In this system also, it is believed that the structure and the organization of work and purpose is unitary and individual employees or trade unions are not expected to challenge the management. Worse still is that trade unions are perceived to be an illegitimate entity that sabotages the balance of the whole unit and. As Unitarism assumes that workplace conflicts are non existent due to the organization and symbiotic relationship among workers and managers, the idea of trade unions is conceived to be foreign. Unitary system therefore denies conflict in workplace and just assumes that the conflicts are only due to personal differences, faulty communication and works of inciters from without. Managers in this system believe that workers conflicts can be managed within the system than involving trade unions (Fox 1966 p.10). Unions are seen as achieving nothing for employees but sabotaging progress, pushing up cost and constantly frustrating the owners of production enterprise in the guise of resolving workplace conflicts (Fox 1966, p.11). The ideology also endeavors to integrate employees into organization based on employee commitment to quality production, customer need and job flexibility. It therefore serves three purposes in the management; self reassurance as an instrument of persuasion and as a technique of seeking legitimization of authority. Adopting the unitary view of industrial organization is one of managers tactics. This gives a motivation that harmony of purpose exists. Ideology also is a persuasive instrument in which employers persuade their employees and public at large; that industry is a harmony of cooperation which only trouble mongers choose to disrupt (Fox 1966, p.5). This way they make their work easier by convincing their employees and winning public support, should management be challenged by their workers. Moreover, management creates a situation where their interest and those of other employees are similar and legitimizes the regime. Therefore drawing from this assumed legitimacy, their government sanctions and cruelty become legitimate (Edwards, 2003, p.34). In their bid to gain authority under this perspective, managers are also likely to adopt measures that are aimed at debilitating trade union and favoring the company and this triggers further resentment from the trade union (Fox 1966, p.11). Moreover, Managers holding Unitarism perspective belief that collective bargaining, negotiation and reconciliation encourage the wrong attitude between the two sides in industry. They therefore term any resistance and conflicts to be due to stupidity, wrong headedness or outdated class rancor and they work toward inculcating such ideology to their subordinates who by following the ideology are easily controlled (Fox 1966, p.12). Managers also utilize conformist innovation whereby they focus on acquiring expertise that will enable them to demonstrate a close relationship between their activities and organizational success criteria (Thornley, 2003a, p.83). This is mostly attained through specialization in personal management. This influences the re action of workers and their management becomes easier. The assumptions of the unitary position, with its emphasis on managerial prerogative, and its attempt to deconstruct realities of divergent work group attitude and values in the interest of strong unified team renders it weak under modern conditions especially in their obsolete view on the nature of conflict in the work place. Unitarisms view on the nature, cause and how to handle workplace conflict is utterly conservative and time tested. This organized labor is challenged when it comes to the process of organizing and assigning work to members as well as sanctioning the labor force. The failure to consider common interest leads to faulty communication or misunderstanding and at that time conflicts at workplace become a challenge. Pluralism Pluralist perspective is a system with a political analogy whereby many groups with divergent interests and beliefs act as one organization, and the government depend on their consent and cooperation. The final authority in pluralism lack moral bargain to arrive at final decision without relying on members unity (Clegg 1979, p.454). In this system, trade unions are legitimate institutions that represent collective interest of the workers and are granted powers to challenge management. There is therefore minimal authoritarianism because conflicts in the work place are viewed at as inevitable and as a phenomenon that is bound to occur without question. Pluralism views Industrial relations as much stable and adaptable as a result of collective agreement and it is very difficult for the management to sabotage trade unions unlike in the Unitarism (Clegg 1979, p.454). In the regulation of pluralism, conflicts induced by the trade unions are indispensable so the question of how to contain them triumphs over how to constrain the unions operations. In pluralist view, the organization is seen as a plural society with related but separate interests and objectives which should be tamed to a kind of equilibrium through conflict if workers are expropriated. Fox (1966, p.3) analyses that the running of a pluralism system is aimed at striking a balance of members activities of the group for the highest degree of freedom. This is done in line with general interest of the society as it is. The system is kept alive by the fact that sectional groups with divergent interests aim for a common goal and are mutually depended. Under this view, managers are expected to deploy many tactics in their professional functions should they expect to gain any accepted authority. These involve organizing work people and technical resources, shareholders, customers, the government and the local community. Managers who hold this perspective dearly seek to acquire some control through acting in the best interest of all stakeholders. Pluralist workers and other stakeholders, on the other hand, maintain their relations with managers as their source of information to deliver their goods and services to their satisfaction and to minimize work place conflicts (Clegg 1979, p.455). The effectiveness of managers under pluralism in their job is also, highly determined by their good relation with those who negotiate with them on behalf of the workers. Therefore it can be deduced that pluralism views workplace conflicts as indispensable and as a part of work relation hence trade unions are unavoidable institutions. Under this perspective the only way managers can be at ease is to strike a balance between their interest and that of workers by establishing good rapport with negotiators. In many organizations with pluralist approach, managers involve collective negotiations, procedures of dispute settlement, formal and informal consultation as tools of their power control. Marxism Marxism in its proper form is a general theory of society and social change with implications for analysis and industrial relations capitalism. Marxism has since its inception served as a tool for social research into power relations and a discourse in which other phenomena and reality are examined. Class conflict, a macrocosm of work place conflict, according to Marxists is there to stay within the system as far as profit is made out of exploitation of labor by the owners of production. Class divisions that inhere in society are closely intertwined with the bourgeoisie structure of industry and a wage labor (Hyman 1975, p.28). The capitalist, according to Marxism, has introduced social features that dominate labor process which is a property of the worker and this forces the worker to sell their labor power together with their interest. This alienates labor from the owner and makes it to be controlled by the capitalist. Karl Marx, the initiator of Marxists school of thought, noted that ones labor is equal to his or her humanity and one would be dehumanized once someone else controls his or her labor (Braveman 1998, p.39). Since the owner of labor is powerless and the buyer powerful there is a possibility of expropriation of the worker by the employee and hence trade unions are formed. Trade unions in Marxism are legitimate vehicles in challenging the excesses of property owners whenever they disrupt the distribution of national products as a result of power differences. Marxism therefore holds that workplace conflicts are bound to be there but measures should be put to tame them. Trade unions are therefore looked at as institutions that conjure up as a result of painful exploitation of employees by the owners of means of production and therefore as a collective bargaining person (Clegg 1979, p.455). A long history of conflicts has proved that they can be contained if positively perceived and handled. Marxism is the ultimate conflict theory that criticizes Unitarism and pluralism because of their leniency on handling workplace conflicts. Research demonstrates that Marxists and pluralists differ in their industrial relation analysis and further in their definition of its subject matter and nature (Hyman 1975, p.20). What is common in both schools of thought is that both are concerned with conflict and stability acquisition. This means in both perspectives conflict in workplace is unavoidable just as in any other sphere of social life. In most work places management asserts its authority and control down wards from above while work groups assert their independence and control upwards from below (Coffey Thornley 2009, p.93). This reverse expectation is the one that projects a conflicting point where balance has to be struck radically to the benefit of neither of the side. According to Clegg (1979, p.454) Marxist account of industrial relation has that, trade unions may become integrated in the institutions and operations of capitalist society. This strategy, which managers under Marxism may deploy to gain authority, is the greatest evil that can bedevil trade unions under Marxism because once that is accomplished unions cease to act as instruments of social class welfare. This integration may assume terms as economism, incorporation and institutionalization. As much as this is not consistent with trade unions objective it does not favor the employee who is supposed to be represented. Collective bargaining employs freedom for workers to organize independent trade unions to bargain independently and effectively with the employer. To get rid of persistent subordination, workers have freedom to organize autonomous trade unions (Wedderburn 1986, p.7). Integration of trade unions into capitalist society, midwifed by managers, influences all representatives, who interact with managers and employers association, to forfeit their duty to serve employees. To avoid this trade unionists are not advised, under Marxism to make a binding agreement with their employers. In Marxism it is expected that conflicting employee and employer prefer a settlement of their differences in an amicable manner close to each partys objective. This settlement is mostly to be achieved after a series of meetings (Clegg 1979, p.453). As the two sides also push each other to the wall, they must keep in mind that they are mutually depended on each other and that collective bargaining is the backbone of their industrial relations. This however does not imply that trade unions representatives always yield to the pressures of the enterprise. Marxism believes that workers ability to deliver their labor productively lies in the damage they cause to their employers whenever they strike. Further institutionalization of trade unions makes them not to be seen in the old goggles as tools of radical protest and revolt (Clegg 1979, p.454). Trade unions in Marxist setting are aligned to a political party with wider support, greater funds and more activists. Marxism therefore entrenches politicization of workers by action that workers must learn to deploy the mass power of the union as an instrument of revolt should a need arise (Clegg 1979, p.454). Conclusion However, debates on Marxism, pluralism and Unitarism no longer dominate in the labor market today but a new orthodox under the promising enterprise duped human resource management (Guest 1991, p.149) for managers to control power at the work place they adopt enhanced motivation and commitment at work that leads to high performance and therefore managers are expected to dig into it. Rules in an employment sector are either procedural or substantive and do not just follow some theorized routes as those established in Marxism, Unitarism or Pluralism. This is usually found in the spirit of collective agreement that is usually constituted in a body of rules. The Procedural part of the rules deals with matters as which methods are to be used and the means that are deployed when settling disputes that arise from places of work (Flanders 1975, p.86). This very part also deals with facilities to be provided to the representatives of parties who enter the agreement. Substantive part on the other hand pronounces the rate of wages, working hours among other terms of employment leaving exploitation as the last thing to be forced. The substantive rules of collective bargaining regulate the marketing interpretation and enforcement of such rules (Flanders 1975, p.87). However, each of the set of rules, whether substantive or procedural regulate different sets of relationships. Collective relations that involve representative organizations are under the procedural rules. The worker is subject to managerial relation whereby authority and subordination come to play with respect of who is who in the work place. The employee is usually placed at a position where he will exercise his powers in a limited way with regard to the hierarchy of power (Flanders 1975, p.88).The powers are born of organization of the management with an aim of attaining the goals of the enterprise. Here the employees interact with fellow employees and management as they share interests, sentiments, beliefs and values for the common purpose (Flanders 1975, p.89). In conclusion conflicts in the work place are indispensable but what should take precedence is how to solve them. Trade unions are meant to solve the conflict between the employer and the employee but there are other problems that management will have to deal with. The three perspectives offer their take on the industrial relation but their survival is depended on the culture of the society and how they will be interpreted by those involved. What is very important in this case is a balance that will maintain stability in the work place that every party will be satisfied.

Circuit Training :: essays research papers

From reducing risk of heart attack to simply providing more energy, weight training plays an important role in one’s life. One very popular method of weight training is to increase mobility and build strength and stamina. This method is known as circuit training. Circuit training has been around for decades and offers a wide variety of applications and benefits. This workout is performed both mentally and physically. The weight training participant performs one set of an exercise then immediately performs a set of another exercise in succession without rest; one right after another. Exercise can be sequenced in a variety of combinations, which isolate single muscles, a group of muscles, or total body training. Since muscles can only contract for long periods of time when sufficient amounts of oxygen are available, mental focus during circuit training is directed towards the heart and lungs, as opposed just the muscles during conventional training. The cardiovascular and respiratory systems feed our working muscles with oxygen filled blood that is eventually fueled by body fat. During conventional training the focus isn’t on the heart and lungs because the cardio/respiratory system rests between exercises, allowing the ATP to LA cycle to be the energy supplier. (This cycle must be depleted in order for the body to burn fat). By performing circuit training, you don’t give your heart or lungs a chance to relax, which keeps the ATP to LA cycle depleted. In addition to increasing heart and lung conditioning, enhancing your ability to use oxygen, ad burning fat, impressive muscular shape and strength gains will result from doing any circuit-training workout. Research studies consistently show that leans body mass increases with a course of circuit training. A 1-3.2 kg gain in lean body mass can be expected with a consequent decrease in relative fat mass of 1-3%, total weight remaining unchanged. This is a major benefit of circuit training, especially for those who want to get in shape and tone up their muscles. With traditional aerobic training, a decrease in relative fat mass has led to a decrease in total weight with little change in lean body mass. The resistance work involved in the circuits encourages muscle-mass

Comparing T S Eliots The Wasteland and William Butler Yeats The Secon

Comparing T. S. Eliot's The Wasteland and William Butler Yeats' The Second Coming       World War One fundamentally changed Europeans perspective on man. Before the war they believed that man was innately good, after it people were disenchanted with this vision of man. Both Thomas Sterns Eliot and William Butler Yeats keenly felt this disenchantment, and evinced it in their poetry. In addition to the war, Eliot and Yeats also saw the continuing turmoil in Europe, such as the Russian Revolution and the Irish Rebellions, as confirmation of their fear of man's nature and expanded their disillusionment in "The Waste Land" and "The Second Coming." The poets shared more than a disbelief in the goodness of man's nature, they also both had religious experiences that colored their thoughts. Eliot was an atheist at the start of his life, and converted to Christianity, coming to believe in it fervently. Eliot also toyed with Buddhism during one stage of his writing "The Wasteland" (Southam 132). Yeats, on the other hand, grew up a practicing Christian and by the time he wrote "The Second Coming" was forming his own personal philosophy founded on an accumulation of everything "[he] had read, thought, experienced, and written over many years" (Harrison. 1). His philosophy, therefore, included Christianity as a factor in his life, but not nearly as significant a factor as in Eliot's life. Because of the importance of religion in both of their lives, Yeats and Eliot used many mythological and religious allusions in their poems. While both poets shared a disenchantment in the nature of man, their varying religions made them see different outcomes on mankind's horizon. Eliot saw the future as redeemable, while Yeats believed it could onl... ..."       Works Cited    Harrison, John. "What rough beast? Yeats, Nietzsche and historical rhetoric in 'The Second Coming.' Electric Library    Leavis, F.R. "The Waste Land." T.S. Eliot: a Collection of Critical Essays.ed.    HughKenner. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc. 1962. 104-109 "Rudyard Kipling and William Butler Yeats"    http://www.en.utexas.edu/~benjamin/316kfall/316unit4/studentprojects/ kiplingyeats/intro.html    Southam, B.C. A guide to the Selected Poems of T. S. Eliot. New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1994.    UVA class notes, Dept of English, lit. intro into English from 1890 1989. http://www.faraday.clas.virginia.edu./~sg5p/Class_notes_2.html    Vickery, John B. The Literary Impact of The Golden Bough. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1973.      

Dorothy Parker Essay -- essays research papers

*** "Inventory" 'Four be the things I am wiser to know: Idleness, sorrow, a friend, and a foe. Four be the things I'd been better without: Love, curiosity, freckles, and doubt. Three be the things I shall never attain: Envy, content, and sufficient champagne. Three be the things I shall have till I die: Laughter and hope and a sock in the eye.' *** Dorothy Parker became popular shortly after the first world war with her light verse and short stories. Although her works may not seem harsh and unwomanly today, they were labeled in this manner at the height of her popularity. Her cynical verses developed into something of a national frenzy, while giving the reader the impression that she recklessly stretched a woman's equal rights to include sexual relationships. It seemed that infidelity was included among these "rights." Her admirers culled quotations from her poetry that, while seeming to be among the most clever, were also among the least sincere. These epitomize the apparent lack of emotional range displayed in her verse. The techniques and topics that many of her verses tackle are as follows: "bitterness, humor, wit, and love" (Adams 519), together with an absolute foreknowledge of their futility. Love, especially, plays a major role as a theme of Parker's verse. Many poems are relating to love and loneliness or death as results of love. Parker once said of an actress in a review of a play that she "runs the gamut of em...

‘Deadly Unna?’ By Phillip Gwynne Essay

‘Deadly Unna?’ was the first novel of the famous Australian author, Phillip Gwynne, published in 1998. The fascinating drama novel expresses the inter-racial friendship between two teenage boys, Gary â€Å"Blacky† Black and â€Å"Dumby† Red. The book focuses on many complications the adolescence face, for example racism, favouritism, relationships, families, exclusion and more. ‘Deadly Unna?’ is set in the Port and Peninsula of South Australia, the ‘Goonyas’ (white Australians) are based in the Port and the ‘Nungas’ (the Aboriginals) are located on the Peninsula. The reason for this separation is to emphasise the racial tension between the white Australians and the Aboriginals that the author is trying to present. The story is told from the perspective of the main character, ‘Blacky’. As the story is being told by a white Australian you would be led to believe that it is going to be a very biased story but in this case it is quite the opposite situation. Gary Black is one of the few, if not the only, characters from the Port that truly understands the similarity that the two races acquire which enables the readr to see Aboriginals in a different light from the generalised/sterotypical image common in Australia. Gary â€Å"Blacky† Black is the major character in this novel, as the basis of the book revolves around him and his experiences and complications he faces in his youthful life. Blacky is more academic then he is sport orientated, though saying this he does play football. Blacky has a rather large family consisting of eight children, a stay-at-home mother and a hindering father. Blacky gets along with his siblings though they do have the occasional conflict, he is proud of his mother but unfortunately has a weak relationship with his father because of a previous controversy. Though Dumby Red did not physically appear very often throughout the book,  one particular incident involving Dumby Red arose great racial contention. Dumby Red was a very enthusiastic, optimistic and extremely self-assertive character. He was responsible for Blacky’s change of mind towards the Aboriginals, he was the one the made Blacky see the Aboriginals for who they really are, not who they are said to be. ‘Pickles’ is Blacky’s best friend, he in highly intolerable with his disgusting habits and his lack of general hygiene and know one will ever know why Blacky’s relationship with him is so strong. ‘Arks’ is Blacky’s over enthusiastic and encouraging football coach, he was a great influence on Blacky’s football performance in the grand final. Clarence is Dumby Red’s sister, at one point in the novel Blacky was rather fond of her though he was warned by Darcy that he must be careful who he associates himself with. Darcy is Blackys next door neighbour, the elderly man is very king to young Blacky and is always full of good advice, Blacky enjoys spending time with him and hearing about his fascinating life. The book is separated into two sections, winter and summer. Winter being the football season and summer the off season. The beginning of the novel focuses on football and Blacky’s attempt to be the hero of his team. It briefly touches on relationship and racial difficulties though the real complications reach their climax towards summer. Horrific crimes occur making the plot very interesting, people are being blamed, hearts are being broken and choices are having to be made. The Port’s football team make the grand final, disaster occurs on a boat, family relationships are tested, there is dispute at the football awards, the death of a well loved character provokes outrage throughout the community, true friendship is being questioned and Blacky follows his heart to do what is right. The purpose/aim of ‘Deadly Unna?’ is to highlight the seriousness of racism that takes place in the country we live in, as well as focusing on many concerns that adolescences face today. This is very effective as the book is intended for young adults meaning they are able to relate and compare their  lives to the ones created in the book. The use of Australian ‘slang’ (for example youse, ya and g’day) in the novel was also very powerful as it strengthened the realism of the characters. Many people nowadays do speak with ‘slang’ and it is the stereotypical way the true Australians communicate. A definite strength of the book is that it is written in first person, the use of Blacky’s thoughts and feelings throughout allows insight into the life he lives during the dramas that occur. The fact that Blacky was not bias in his feeling towards the Aborigines also assisted in allowing the reader to understand both sides of the racial conflict. The only minor weaknesses in the novel were the friendship between Blacky and Dumby Red. Though is does discus how good of ‘mates’ they were, it did not go into great detail of the complexities they face because of their inter-racial relationship. The other flaw in the novel was the misleading blurb, the blurb deceives the reader to think that the story line will be revolved around Blacky and Dumby Red facing the community whereas it focus on the much broader community facing the truth about the Aborigines. Overall the book was thoroughly enjoyable and should be recommended to other teenagers. The humour the novel possesses mixed in with the moving theme of racism made the book a worthwhile read. As James Bryce, a diplomat, historian and politician, said â€Å"The worth of the book is measured by what you can carry away from it†.

The Accomplishments of the Greeks

THE ACCOMPLISHMENTS OF THE GREEKS The ancient Greeks had many accomplishments including philosophical beliefs, intellectual ideas and artistic developments. They used many forms of expression to express their philosophical, intellectual, and artistic achievements. These forms essentially made up their culture and defined their lifestyle. In document 1, the philosophy of Socrates stated that humans should analyze their lives. This is an accomplishment because it shows that Greek philosophy was the beginning of modern ideas.As stated in document 2, Aristotle believed that human reason is important in order to have a good life. Aristotle’s rational thought was an accomplishment because it questioned aspects of Greek society. This document was created at this time because it shows the teachings and beliefs of Aristotle that were conveyed to the people. As seen in document 3, the government in Greece around 430 B. C. E. , was set up similar to a republic. Document 3 describes the d emocratic form of government that was used to rule Greece.One of the reasons Greece was so successful was the system of government in place favored fairness and equal opportunity. Pericles was the greatest Athenian democratic ruler. This proved to be an intellectual achievement because it shows that the rulers of Greece at this time were able to form a system of government that was able to effectively rule the people. As seen in document 4, the Greeks had doctors and people specialized in the medical field. This is an intellectual accomplishment of the Greeks because it shows that they had job specialization within the culture.Job specialization is only possible in thriving societies, thus proving Greek was a prosperous civilization. Document 5, describes a geometrical theorem that is still used in mathematics today. This is an intellectual accomplishment because it was written around 300 B. C. E. , and still remains true today. In document 6, an excerpt from the play Antigone, comm on Greek beliefs are conveyed through the characters. As shown in document 7, the Parthenon is an example of Greek architecture, wealth, and religious beliefs. The culture and values of Greece at that time, is displayed through the art that was created.Sculptures, such as the one in Document 8 show the importance of athleticism and the Olympic Games in Greek society. Art was a way for the Greek to express their thinking and way of life in a creative format. An additional document that would be helpful in understanding the accomplishments of the Greeks, would a map of the trade routes throughout the Mediterranean and Black sea. This would show how the Greek culture was able to be spread throughout the Mediterranean Basin. It would also show how the Greeks were able to gain wealth and how it affected their culture.

Operant Conditioning Paper

Operant Conditioning Vanessa Mejias November 28, 2011 Ross Seligman PSY/390 Operant Conditioning In a world that was ruled by psychoanalytic studies, and Thorndike’s puzzle box to explain behaviorism, B. F. Skinner was a revolutionary in the world of psychology. His studies and reports on operant conditioning has not only survived ridicule and skepticism in his time but has also survived the passage of time and social evolution to incorporate his theories several decades later. By learning from and expanding upon Skinner’s schedule of reinforcement the world of social and academic learning has evolved from a puzzling act to a learned process that could be understood the world over. During his research Skinner developed a theory to modify behavior believing that behavior can be created because of a positive or negative stimulus or environment, instead of just instinctually responding to stimuli, like scratching an itch. While he did not create the foundation of behavior modification, his research allowed him to expand upon already existing theories developed by Pavlov and Thorndike. Skinner’s theory consisted of two types of behavior, respondent and operant behavior (Olsen & Hergerhahn, 2009). To go along with, and help modify unwanted behavior Skinner developed two types of conditioning. Type S also known as respondent conditioning and Type R also known as operant conditioning. Type S conditioning is the equivalent to classic conditioning as described by Pavlov and focuses primarily on the significance of the stimulus creating a preferred response or behavior (Olsen & Hergerhahn, 2009). Whereas type R conditioning is similar to Thorndike’s instrumental conditioning, by focusing upon the response after the stimulus (Olsen & Hergerhahn, 2009). The theory of operant conditioning focuses on the four types of stimuli that can elicit a response. Positive reinforcement is an act that adds to a reinforcement that will emit an increase in behavior, while negative reinforcement is an act that takes away a reinforcement that will create an increase in behavior. Whereas punishment follows the same guidelines with positive and negative punishment however the difference lies in the behavior. While reinforcement will increase behavior punishment is supposed to decrease behavior. Extinction however is the act of eliminating the reinforcement or punishment to eliminate the behavior and go back to the behavior prior to attempted modification. The differences between positive and negative reinforcements are not that profound. In actuality the similarities are sounder than the differences. Reinforcement is the act of increasing behavior, however it is the type of reinforcement used that causes the differences. If positive reinforcement is used then the stimuli will add to the behavior, for instance a dog is told to sit while the trainer pushes down on the hind side. Once the dog sits he or she is given a treat. Again the act is repeated with the same reinforcement given, so in this instance the dog is learning that once the required behavior is preformed it will receive a treat, the treat is adding to the increased and desired behavior. However, in the form of negative reinforcement a stimuli is taken away to increase the desired behavior. For instance, if a child wants a donut but will not eat their food, then the caregiver will take away the donut and tell the child they need to eat their lunch before they have their snack. In this instance the snack is taken away so that the child will increase the behavior of eating what is required before unhealthy foods. Although reinforcement, punishment and extinction all have their uses, it is debatable which is more effective. Skinner determined that punishment was not as effective as reinforcements. However the debate is whether positive or negative reinforcement is more effective. Upon review, it seems that positive and negative reinforcement has the same affect yet need to be administered under different circumstances based upon the behavior required, the environment, personality and cultural influences that play significant parts in an individual’s behavior. Throughout Skinner’s research he created a method in which behavior modification could be observed. This is called a schedule of reinforcement. Although Pavlov started to experiment with partial reinforcement with classical conditioning, it was the comprehensive research that Skinner performed that resulted in the complete understanding and effectiveness of scheduled reinforcement. An example of operant conditioning that uses scheduled reinforcement is toilet training. Toilet training incorporates operant and classical conditioning, however it is through the use of reinforcement that creates a positive outcome. During toilet training the child is introduced to the continuous reinforcement schedule, which means that every time the child controls their bladder and uses the toilet a reinforcement will be given. After a time this schedule can be altered to incorporate the fixed interval reinforcement schedule, what this means is that after a set amount of time the child will use the restroom on their own and receive a reinforcement afterwards, so the child will learn to anticipate the reinforcement prior to the use of the toilet. Once toilet training is complete the child will go from operant conditioning [using the toilet for reward], to classical conditioning [using the toilet to feel relief from the discomfort of a full bladder]. Although Skinner’s methods have been ridiculed and are abstract compared to other behaviorists’ theories, his research has allowed the field of psychology to move onto other avenues of possibilities. Whereas, Thorndike, Hull, Pavlov and other known greats have set the foundation to psychology, it was Skinner’s methods and emphasis on operant conditioning that allowed mankind to evolve in the understanding of behavior in animals and humans alike. As a result of Skinner’s radical views educators, animal trainers, psychologists, and caregivers are given hope that change in one’s behavior is attainable and eliminates the ‘blame’ method of humanity. Skinner’s work defines what it means to be ‘responsible for one’s own actions’. References Olsen, M. , & Hergerhahn, B. R. (2009). An Introduction to Theories of Learning [University of Phoenix Custom Edition eBook]. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. Retrieved from University of Phoenix, PSY390 website. Operant Conditioning Paper Operant Conditioning Berline Jean Baptiste PSY/390 March 4, 2013 Esther Siler-Colbert Abstract When thinking about conditioning in general, one will, most likely, refer to classical, and operant conditioning right away. Furthermore, those who study psychology will associate classical conditioning with Ivan Pavlov who was a famous Russian psychologist and operant conditioning with B. F. Skinner, who was a very influential American psychologist. Even though both types of conditioning differ greatly from each other, they are still equally significant to education.Operant Conditioning If one follows the assumptions of a behaviorist, then not all behavior is genetically determined. Since it is not, it is either a function of responded or operant conditioning. Skinner surely followed the footsteps of E. L. Thorndike, who used the term â€Å"of instrumental conditioning instead of operant†. Both, however, believed that animals and humans are capable of more complicated behavior, albe it gradually. According to Skinner, this form of learning was a conditioning one, but one that was of a different kind from the one proposed by Pavlov.For instance, in respondent behavior, one does something in a passive manner to the environment; however, in operant conditioning, one does it because somewhere in the past this kind of behavior was associated with a pleasing outcome or with trying to avoid the occurrence of an unpleasant one. Therefore, quite opposite from what respondent behavior is, this kind of operant is always conditioned. Very important to indicate that the probability of a behavior occurring again, increases or decreases with the merit of its consequences. Clearly, it can be said that one learns to colligate an action to its consequence.The bond between the action and the consequence is referred to as contingency, which further declares one’s behavior in the future (Alloy, Riskind & Manos, 2005). In Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning there are three different terms, which are needed, and they are stimulus, response, and reinforcement, and as acknowledged by Skinner on several occasions, life is full of reinforces. There are different kinds of reinforces too, such as food or sex, to which one responds instinctively. These kinds of reinforces are known as primary reinforces and do not need to be learned.However, one responds mostly to reinforce that were conditioned, referred today to as secondary reinforces (Alloy, Riskind & Manos, 2005). There are three components in operant conditioning named positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment. According to Skinner’s theory, reinforcement is a consequence that will result in a behavior repeating; punishment has the opposite effect. It is very important to know that the terms positive and negative do not refer to something being just pleasant or unpleasant but instead, they indicate if a stimulus was added or taken away.To further simplify, in positi ve reinforcement the behavior is strengthened by adding a stimulus and in negative reinforcement, the behavior is weakened by removing one. Still, it is very important to point out that negative reinforcement is very often confused with punishment. One needs to keep in mind that one kind strengthens behavior, such as the reinforcement, whereas the other one, the punishment, eliminates behavior (Alloy, Riskind & Manos, 2005). It is difficult to define clearly, which reinforcement is the most effective one.Two major factors, the organism itself and the kind of circumstances, come into play when trying to make a decision of this kind. While for some, positive reinforcement may work truly well, for others the effectiveness of a negative reinforcement might do more. In addition, the results one seeks could also influence which one might be the better choice. So for instance, if one is in a restaurant and had a great dinner, he or she will most likely leave a big tip. In this scenario, po sitive reinforcement will most likely have a greater impact than a negative one.However, one would use negative reinforcement when trying to remove something annoying, such as a loud noise. Using a seatbelt in a car will remove the annoying beep noise that is usually there when one is unbuckled. Therefore, using the seatbelt is reinforced because it removes a stimulus. In summary, it can be acknowledge that both kinds of reinforcement are very effective since they increase the chance of a future response. In addition to positive and negative reinforcement, there is also the positive and negative punishment.For instance, positive punishment can be one adding an angry voice to an argument while negative punishment can be removing privileges, which parents often do when trying to punish their children for bad behavior. Once again, what kind of reinforcement, and even punishment, is the most effective, truly depends on different aspects (Schunk, 2008). The use of operant conditioning ca n be very often observed in parents raising their children. The same can be applied to me. I am a mom of two boys, one who is almost two years old and the other who is two months old. They not only differ in their physical appearance but also in their character.It seems while negative reinforcement might work truly well on the 19 months old, it probably would not work well on my two months old when his older. Since my 19 months old is usually very active, behave extremely well, like to read his book, and due his daily learning charts if this would suddenly change, I would try to apply negative reinforcement to shape his behavior. Even though my two months old is not yet old enough to take action towards, but if he starts crying after his diaper has been change and he’s been fed then I will use positive reinforcement to shape his behavior.Knowing my 19 months old, I am assuming the only possible way to shape his behavior and have him read his book and also have him do his dail y learning charts constantly would be by having him spend more time indoors, instead of playing outside. Therefore, the choice to use negative reinforcement is the perfect one for him and for this kind of situation. If he wanted to go outside more and play, he would be able to gain more of this time back by not falling behind. Once doing so, he could go outside again and play with his friends. In this case, good behavior would decrease the time he would have to stay indoors.If my two months old decided not to stop crying and would require some attention, I would use attention to shape his behavior, which in this case would work as a positive reinforcement. Paying attention to him, showing him that I am here even when he is not being held would make him feel more secure and won’t mind lying in his swinger. In addition, depending on the situation, continuous reinforcement might not always be possible. For instance, I might not always have the time to give him all of my attentio n because I do have to share myself between him and my other son.Maybe additional strategies, such as the use of reinforcement schedules, might be necessary. There are four kinds of reinforcement schedules called fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, and variable interval. In my son’s case, variable ratio might work well. He knows he will get the attention when I can; however, he won’t know when it will happen. However, if both, the positive and negative reinforcement, seem not to work, then there is the possibility of using punishment. In this case, I would take privileges away from both of them so that their behavior can be shaped (Martinez, 2010).References Alloy, L. , B. , Riskind, J. , H. & Manos, M. , J. (2005). Abnormal psychology: Current perspectives (9th. ed. ) New York, NY: The McGraw-Hills Companies Inc. Martinez, M. , E. (2010). Learning and cognition: The design of the mind. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education Inc. Olson, M. , H. & Hergenhahn , B. , R. (2009). An Introduction to theories of learning. (8th. Ed. ). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. Schunk, D. , H. (2008). Learning theories: An educational perspective (5th. ed. ). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education Inc.